Pharmacology: Confounders for bleeding

Pharmacology – Prep Manual for Undergraduates

pharmacology – prep manual for undergraduates

0

Criteria for confounders in epidemiological studies

The paper addresses a formal de®nition of a confounder based on the qualitative de®nition that is commonly used in standard epidemiology text-books. To derive the criterion for a factor to be a confounder given by Miettinen and Cook and to clarify inconsistency between various criteria for a confounder, we introduce the concepts of an irrelevant factor, an occasional confounder and a uniformly ...

ECG interpretation confounders.

Scenario: A 45-year-old female executive arrived at the emergency room with complaints of substernal chest pressure and shortness of breath. She has no prior medical or surgical history, takes no medication, has a normal body mass index, and exercises regularly. Below is her 12-lead ECG obtained in the emergency room. A regular feature of the American Journal of Critical Care, the ECG Puzzler a...

Confounding and confounders.

Confounding should always be addressed in studies concerned with causality. When present, it results in a biased estimate of the effect of exposure on disease. The bias can be negative—resulting in underestimation of the exposure effect—or positive, and can even reverse the apparent direction of effect. It is a concern no matter what the design of the study or what statistic is used to measure ...